How Ancient Egypt Became Modern Egypt

Egypt's post-ancient history, from Roman province to Ottoman rule, was marked by significant religious and political transformations, leading to its modern identity.

• Egypt's transition from ancient empire to Roman province initiated significant cultural and religious shifts.

• The arrival of Islam and subsequent caliphates profoundly reshaped Egypt's political and urban landscape.

• Mamluk rule brought stability but also challenges like the Black Death, preceding Egypt's incorporation into the Ottoman Empire.

Following the death of Cleopatra VII, Egypt transitioned from an ancient empire into a Roman province, becoming a crossroads of trade and a melting pot of cultures and religions, notably Christianity and then Islam. The country experienced various caliphates and sultanates, including the Fatimids and Mamluks, which shaped its governance, culture, and economy. Eventually, Egypt became an integral part of the Ottoman Empire, undergoing reforms that influenced its long-term development.

Egypt as a Roman Province

• 00:01:39 After the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty with Cleopatra VII's death, Egypt was absorbed into the Roman Empire, transforming from a global center into a mere province. Despite this, its strategic location positioned it at the heart of intercontinental trade routes connecting Europe, India, and East Africa via ports like Alexandria and Bereniki. This era also saw the profound spread of Christianity, establishing the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria by AD 42 and leading to the thorough Christianization of the region by the 5th and 6th centuries.

The Rise of Islamic Egypt

• 00:03:48 The Arabian desert gave rise to a new power and religion, Islam, which united tribes into a rapidly expanding caliphate. By 640, the Rashidun general Amr ibn al-As conquered Egypt from the weakened Byzantine and Sassanian empires, taking Alexandria in 641 and marking the beginning of Islamic Egypt. A new capital, Fustat, was founded on the eastern banks of the Nile, growing rapidly and eventually being encircled by Cairo, which became the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate and a golden age for art and learning.

Mamluk Sultanate

• 00:08:39 The Mamluks, non-Arab slave soldiers, became instrumental kingmakers in Egypt, eventually overthrowing the Ayyubid Sultanate and establishing their own sultanate. This period saw the Bahri and Burji Mamluk clans rule, with Mamluks occupying all key government positions, though their foreign origins led to a detachment from the everyday Egyptian populace. The Mamluk era, while offering long-term stability, faced devastating challenges, most notably the Black Death in 1347, which severely reduced Egypt's population and hindered its recovery due to rigid landholding systems.

Ottoman Rule and Transformation

• 00:12:05 In 1517, the Mamluk Sultanate was absorbed by the rapidly expanding Ottoman Empire, although the Mamluks initially retained some power. After a failed rebellion, Suleiman I's vizier Ibrahim Pasha restructured Egypt's legal and military systems, making it an important source of grain and Nubian gold for the Ottoman Empire. Internal Mamluk factionalism and the introduction of the 'Irtizam' tax farm system, which prioritized tax collection over agricultural productivity, weakened Ottoman control, setting the stage for 19th-century changes initiated by figures like Muhammad Ali Pasha.